Journal of Childhood

Introduction
Parental depression is a pervasive public-health concern that extends beyond individual suffering and can disrupt family functioning and put children at elevated risk for emotional, behavioral, and social problems. Although quantitative studies have documented associations between parental depressive symptoms and offspring outcomes—ranging from internalizing/externalizing disorders to poorer cognitive, academic, and social functioning—less is known about how children themselves experience living with a parent who has a clinically diagnosed depressive disorder. Most existing qualitative studies have been conducted in Western countries and may not capture culturally specific patterns of experience in non-Western societies. In Iran, limited qualitative research has explored the lived experience of adolescents exposed to parental depression. The present study therefore aimed to explore how Iranian adolescents aged 12–17 perceive and experience living with a parent diagnosed with depressive disorder. This research sought to find the core concepts that characterize these adolescents’ lived experience and generate insights to help in developing culturally sensitive preventative and supportive interventions tailored to the needs of affected children and families in Iran.

Research Methods 
This is a qualitative research using the interpretative phenomenological analysis based on Colaizzi’s seven-step method. The study population consisted of all children and adolescents aged 12–17 years, who had at least one parent with depressive disorder diagnosed by a psychiatrist, referred to local health and counseling centers in Mahabad, Iran, in 2024. Using purposeful sampling, 12 participants were recruited after reaching data saturation through semi-structured interviews. The semi-structured interviews were based on Heideggerian hermeneutic phenomenology. Inclusion criteria were age 12–18 years, parental diagnosis of depression based on the DSM-5 criteria, and informed consent. Exclusion criteria were severe psychiatric disorders or unwillingness to continue participation. All interviews were conducted in a confidential and supportive setting, each lasting 40–80 minutes, and were transcribed verbatim. Data were analyzed in MAXQDA software, version 2022. To ensure the data trustworthiness, four criteria of credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability were applied. 

Results 
Twelve participants (7 girls and 5 boys) aged 12–17 years were interviewed. Data analysis revealed five main themes and several subthemes that described the lived experiences of children. The first major theme, “living environment,” included the subthemes of confusion, anger/aggression, loneliness, and communication difficulties; demonstrating the chaotic and emotionally tense atmosphere at home. The second theme, “impact of parental depression on life”, encompassed the subthemes of feeling guilty, caregiving/support, and learned helplessness; showing how children internalize their parents’ struggles. The third theme, “reactions to parental depression,” included the subthemes of empathy, encouragement, stress/worry, and disappointment; reflecting both emotional engagement and psychological burden. The fourth theme, “lack of life skills,” included the subthemes of low self-esteem, poor assertiveness, and indecisiveness; indicating the long-term developmental effects of growing up with a depressed parent. The fifth and final theme, “psychological consequences of parental depression,” included the subthemes of fear, low mood, and social isolation. Overall, the findings indicate that living with a parent suffering from depression profoundly affects children’s emotional stability, interpersonal relationships, and self-perception, leading to a persistent sense of insecurity and emotional exhaustion.

Conclusion
The findings of this study demonstrate that parental depression has far-reaching and multidimensional effects on children, influencing their emotional, behavioral, and cognitive development as well as the overall family dynamic. The lived experiences of Iranian adolescents revealed that a depressive disorder in one parent transforms the home environment into a space characterized by tension, irritability, emotional distance, and disrupted communication. This emotional climate often leads children to internalize feelings of guilty and responsibility for their parent’s suffering, thereby reinforcing learned helplessness and diminished resilience. Emotional reactions toward the depressed parent ranged from empathy and support to frustration, anxiety, and social withdrawal. The children also reported deficiencies in life skills, assertiveness, and self-esteem, largely due to inconsistent or authoritarian parenting styles commonly associated with depressive symptomatology. Importantly, the psychological manifestations in children—such as persistent low mood, social isolation, and difficulties in emotional regulation—reflect the intergenerational transmission of emotional disturbance.
Despite the insightful findings, the study’s sample sample size limits their generalizability. Nevertheless, the implications are significant. Educational and mental health programs for depressed parents should aware them of how their emotional states can affect their children. Furthermore, early screening and the implementation of family-centered psychosocial interventions can reduce the emotional and behavioral consequences of parental depression and promote resilience among affected children.

Ethical Considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
Participation in this study was voluntary. Before the interviews, participants received information about the study objectives and procedures. A written informed consent from parents or legal guardians. All participants' information was kept confidential to protect their privacy. 

Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for profit sectors.

Authors contributions
The authors contributed equally to the preparation of this work. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of interest
 The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements
 The authors would like to thank all participants and parents for their valuable time and cooperation in this study.