Journal of Childhood

Introduction
Neglected and abused children experience a range of emotional and psychological disorders and difficulties (Fogler et al., 2022). One of these difficulties is poor interpersonal relationships (Mburugu et al., 2012). Problems in interpersonal relationships with others, an increased tendency toward conflict, and an inability to form positive relationships or understand others can lead to social and psychological distress in the future (Klimenko, 2018; Bodrova and Leong, 2024). 
Cognitive flexibility is another factor that is important to examine in orphaned children (Leclercq et al., 2023). It allows children to regulate core internal thoughts and modify external behaviors in order to recognize, label, interpret, and respond appropriately to their own and others’ emotions (Farahani et al., 2023). Cognitive flexibility is also a key skill in problem-solving (Kalia et al., 2020). Moreover, problem-solving styles constitute one of the essential skills for coping with difficulties; therefore, they represent an effective approach that unaccompanied children can use to overcome challenges and reduce psychological problems (Kozikoglu, 2019).
Research has shown that Philosophy for Children (P4C) interventions are highly effective in reducing children’s psychological difficulties. Approximately four decades ago, Lipman introduced the philosophy for children program to enhance children’s philosophical thinking skills (Khaleghi and Rahmanian, 2024). The improvement of the above-mentioned variables in orphaned and abused children is of great importance. Considering that no previous study has been conducted in this area among orphaned children, the present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of the Philosophy for Children program in improving problem-solving styles, cognitive flexibility, and interpersonal relationships among children residing in care centers for orphaned and abused children in Alborz Province.
Research Methods 
This semi-experimental study employed a pre-test and post-test design with both an experimental group and a control group. The statistical population comprised all children residing in centers for orphaned and maltreated children in Alborz province in 2024. From this population, 30 children were selected as the research sample using convenience sampling and were then randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group.
The experimental group received 12 one-hour sessions of the Philosophy for Children program training, while the control group received no treatment. Both groups completed the research questionnaires in two stages: a pre-test and a post-test. The research instruments included the Problem-Solving Styles Questionnaire by Cassidy and Long (1996), the Interpersonal Communication Skills Questionnaire by Monjamedzadeh (2012), and the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory by Dennis and Vander Wal (2010).
SPSS software, version 26 was utilized for data analysis. The Shapiro-Wilk test, homogeneity of variances, and homogeneity of regression slope tests were used to examine the research hypotheses. Subsequently, analysis of covariance was employed to further test the hypotheses.
Results 
After reviewing and confirming the assumptions of the analysis of covariance, it was used to analyze the data and the results showed that the F statistic for the component of the ability to create several alternative solutions to face challenging situations (285.60), the tendency to perceive difficult situations as controllable situations (39.695), and the ability to perceive several alternative explanations for events and human behaviors (127.930) was statistically significant. These significant findings suggest a notable difference between the two groups in these specific components. This implies that the Philosophy for Children program effectively enhanced these aspects in maltreated and uncared-for children.
Furthermore, the F statistics for efficient problem-solving style (F=70.007) and inefficient problem-solving style (F=315.95), as well as for interpersonal relationships (F=156.478), were also statistically significant. This indicates a significant difference between the groups in these areas as well. These results demonstrate that teaching philosophy to children not only increased efficient problem-solving styles and decreased inefficient ones but also ultimately improved interpersonal relationships among maltreated and uncared-for children.
Conclusion 
Participation in the philosophy for children program significantly enhanced the cognitive flexibility, problem-solving styles, and interpersonal relationships of neglected and abused children. The program demonstrated a profound and multifaceted impact on the development of children deprived of adequate parental care. Unlike traditional skill-based interventions, the philosophy for children program cultivates how children think, how they relate to others, and how they interpret their lives. By increasing cognitive flexibility, improving constructive problem-solving styles, and enriching interpersonal relationships, the program helps children transition from a state of psychological vulnerability to one of empowerment and agency. The dialogical, reflective, and inclusive nature of the philosophy for children approach makes it highly suitable for populations that have experienced deprivation of care. This intervention not only teaches children problem-solving skills but also equips them with the cognitive and emotional tools necessary to become resilient thinkers, ethical citizens, and thoughtful members of a shared world.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
This study was conducted in adherence to the ethical principles for human research and received approval from the Ethics Committee of the Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord Branch, bearing the ethics code IR.IAU.K.REC.1403.004.
Funding
This study is based on the PhD dissertation of Afshin Aalampour, Approved by the Department of Psychology, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, and did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Authors contributions
Preparation, design, and writing of the article: Afshin Aalampour; Scientific supervisor and content editor: Ahmad Ghazanfari and Mohammad Ghasemi Pirbaluti
Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank and appreciate all who helped us in conducting this research.